China’s leaders sought to calibrate their response to be forceful but not provoke an escalatory response from Washington and its allies, said the people familiar with Beijing’s thinking.

For Mr. Xi, an important factor was his desire for stability ahead of a high-level Communist Party conclave later this year when he is expected to be confirmed as the country’s paramount leader for another five years.

Still, China’s actions have further strained relations with the U.S. and raised security concerns among its allies. Other countries across Asia and Europe fear Beijing’s approach could herald the start of a new phase of more direct pressure on Taiwan.

“Beijing will be uber-reactive to Taiwan going forward,” said Jude Blanchette, a China specialist at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington. “That is the defining feature of the U.S.-China relationship for many months to come.”