Domestic violence is difficult to track. But what’s clear is that the tools governments use to prevent the spread of the virus — quarantines, stay-at-home orders, school closures, economic shutdowns, remote work — have created opportunities for abuse.

Men and boys are among the victims. But women and girls are more likely to face abuse from their spouse or male relatives. LGBTQ and nonbinary people also face a heightened risk.

Roughly 1 in 3 women worldwide suffer physical or sexual violence, according to the World Health Organization. Data is drawn from police reports, court cases, calls to hotlines, occupancy in shelters and opinion surveys. But because of the sensitivity of the topic, figures are considered underestimates, and the pandemic made collecting this data even more difficult.

Still, there were early warning signs. When governments first issued restrictions in the spring of 2020, women’s groups urged them to include provisions that, for example, would exempt social workers from lockdowns.

As lockdowns took effect, domestic violence hotlines in countries across the globe reported startling spikes.